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蜂鸟及其亚洲和非洲的近亲——太阳鸟,都是通过将舌头和喙尖伸入花蜜池中来觅食的。蜂鸟用海绵状的舌头吸取花蜜,再用喙挤出,而太阳鸟则找到了一种脊椎动物中独一无二的觅食方式。布朗大学和加州大学伯克利分校的生物学家进行的一项研究发现,它们利用舌头抵住上颚产生吸力来吸取花蜜。
虽然我们常常认为蜂鸟是从花朵中吸取花蜜,但它们吸取花蜜的方式与我们用吸管吸取果汁的方式不同——它们实际上是用舌头吸收花蜜,然后用喙挤压舌头,将花蜜挤入口中。
人类天生就能用嘴吸吮液体,但如果没有嘴唇来形成密封,这就不容易了,而除了哺乳动物之外,很少有动物有嘴唇。
但加州大学伯克利分校现任和前任生物学家的一项新研究发现,太阳鸟(美洲吸食花蜜的蜂鸟在非洲和亚洲的近亲)确实会利用吸吮来吸取花蜜。它们是已知最早利用舌头吸取液体的动物。
研究结果凸显了自然界常常会针对相似的问题找到不同的解决方案——在这个例子中,就是如何利用细长、管状且通常弯曲的喙从花朵深处获取养分。这被称为趋同进化。
“这真是趋同进化力量和美妙之处的绝佳例证。在自然界中,两种生物扮演着相同的生态角色,但仔细观察就会发现,它们实现这一目标的方式截然不同,”加州大学伯克利分校整合生物学教授、该研究的作者之一劳里·鲍伊(Rauri Bowie)说道。“就我们研究的案例而言,我们发现了一种脊椎动物中全新的机制,堪称创新的典范。”
这项证据来自在非洲和印度尼西亚进行的实验,实验中使用了安装在3D打印人造花旁边的高速摄像机,以及加州大学伯克利分校脊椎动物博物馆(MVZ)获取的太阳鸟的微型CT扫描数据。研究结果已于上月发表在《当代生物学》(Current Biology)杂志上,论文的第一作者是伯克利校友、现任布朗大学博士后研究员大卫·库班(David Cuban)。
“我着迷于趋同进化的现象,”库班说。“蜂鸟和太阳鸟——以及其他一些以花蜜为食的鸟类——在形态、颜色、行为和生态位方面都很相似,但一旦我们放大观察某个特定方面,比如它们的觅食机制,就会发现它们使用的机制完全不同。”
舔舐、吮吸
大多数脊椎动物用舌头舔舐来摄取液体(例如猫狗)。但也有少数动物利用吸力。例如,鱼类会膨胀嘴巴来吸食食物。蝴蝶则利用肌肉泵吸食花蜜和花粉。鸽子从水池中吸水,但它们只能将喙浸入水中,并用舌头作为活塞。而吸食花蜜的动物则没有这些方法,它们只能将舌头伸入甜美的花蜜中。
直到最近,人们还认为以花蜜为食的鸟类——食蜜动物——是利用毛细作用被动地吸取花蜜。人们认为表面张力会将液体吸入它们管状的喙或舌头中。
但许多生物学家对此表示怀疑,因为利用毛细作用吸收能量的速度很慢。对于像蜂鸟和太阳鸟这样飞行频繁的鸟类来说,这种方式无法提供足够的能量。
“仔细想想,考虑到太阳鸟和蜂鸟拥有极其美丽的羽毛,它们会非常积极地展示这些羽毛,并且需要摄入大量卡路里来维持它们的生活方式,所以它们不可能摄入足够的花蜜,”鲍伊说。
近十年前,加州大学伯克利分校米勒博士后研究员亚历杭德罗·里科-格瓦拉利用高速摄像机证明,蜂鸟并不使用毛细作用吸食花蜜。相反,它们会先收缩舌头,然后将舌头伸入花蜜池中。随着舌头扩张,花蜜会像海绵一样充满舌头的毛孔。当蜂鸟缩回舌头时,它们会用上下喙挤压舌头,像老式洗衣机的滚筒一样挤出花蜜。蜂鸟会反复进行这种吸食花蜜的过程,速度比毛细作用快约十倍。
库班曾是加州大学伯克利分校的本科生,后来又攻读机械工程硕士学位。他起初也怀疑太阳鸟是否利用毛细作用吸食花蜜,并决心证明这一点。在鲍伊教授和助教辛西娅·王-克莱普尔(当时也是伯克利的研究生)开设的一门鸟类学课程中,他开始对以花蜜为食的鸟类的趋同进化产生了浓厚的兴趣。当他在博物馆看到蜂鸟和太阳鸟的标本并排摆放时,他说:“我知道我必须研究以花蜜为食的鸟类的趋同进化,而且我想运用我的机械工程背景来完成这项研究。”
One tip-off that sunbirds were not feeding by capillary action came from early high-speed video analyses. Cuban saw bubbles around the tongue, which would interfere with surface tension, though not suction. Sunbirds also keep their beaks slightly open when drinking nectar, whereas hummingbirds do not.
3D-printed flowers
Working as a doctoral student with Rico-Guevara at the University of Washington in Seattle, he traveled to South Africa and Sulawesi in Indonesia to conduct experiments with seven sunbird species, using high-speed cameras to film birds visiting 3D-printed fake flowers filled with sugar water. He modified techniques that Rico-Guevara had originated to study hummingbird feeding, initially in his native Colombia.
Cuban discovered that sunbirds in Asia, where they originated, and in Africa, which they subsequently colonized, use the same tongue technique to draw in nectar. Their tongues have a V-shaped trough at its base. As the bird sticks its tongue into a pool of nectar, it presses its base against the top beak, creating an air-tight seal. As the bird gradually pulls its tongue back in, this creates suction that draws in liquid via the tongue groove. When the seal breaks, the bird swallows the nectar.
“Pushing the base of the tongue against the top of the beak — that's what is really creating that hermetic seal,” Bowie said. “It's the interaction between the tongue and the beak that creates that negative pressure.”
MicroCT scans by Wang-Claypool, now with the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, provided anatomical confirmation.
“They provided the evidence we needed that the structure of the tongue differs from hummingbirds, with sunbirds having special flexible flaps at the base of the tongue so that when the tongue pushes up against the top of the beak, it generates a tight seal,” Bowie said.
The researchers continue to explore the differences between sunbirds and hummingbirds and convergent evolution among nectar eaters — a lifestyle that evolved at least 30 times among animals, Bowie said. A native of South Africa, Bowie started working on sunbirds as part of his Ph.D. thesis at the University of Cape Town and has continued to explore the diversification and evolutionary ecology of these remarkable birds over the 20 years he has been a member of the Berkeley faculty.
“I'm interested in nectarivory as a lifestyle, looking at it from the point of view of the diversification of these species, how they've adapted to different kinds of habitats, including the extensive radiation by both sunbirds and hummingbirds into mountains,” he said.
“By studying the physical interactions, or biomechanics, of organisms we can better understand how the immutable laws of physics are shaping the many diverse adaptations found across the tree of life,” Cuban said.
这项研究的部分经费来自美国国家科学基金会(DEB 1457845)的拨款。与 Cuban、Bowie、Rico-Guevera 和 Wang-Claypool 共同撰写该论文的还有印度尼西亚国家研究与创新署的 Yohanna Yohanna、南非夸祖鲁-纳塔尔大学的 Colleen Downs 和 Steven Johnson 以及比利时布鲁塞尔自由大学的 Fabian Brau。